2010年3月12日 星期五

黑鮪魚貿易戰 日本卯上歐美

黑鮪魚向來是老饕的最愛,但為了避免黑鮪魚遭過度捕撈,世界主要國家將於未來兩周內投票決定是否禁止黑鮪魚的跨國交易,贊成與反對兩大陣營間的黑鮪魚貿易大戰即將開打。



在美國與歐盟的支持下,摩納哥將在本屆瀕臨絕種野生動植物種國際貿易公約(CITES,又稱華盛頓公約)大會提案,把黑鮪魚列入第一層級的保護物種。第一層級物種係指「瀕臨絕種,禁止或嚴格限制買賣」、並禁止商業性國際貿易的物種。CITES預定13至25日於卡達杜哈集會。

摩納哥的提案預料將遇到強烈反彈,由於此提案須獲得175個會員的三分之二票數同意,才能通過,再由各國各自立法實施,因此贊成與反對兩大陣營已在會前展開激烈的合縱連橫,一名資深歐盟談判代表就說:「大戰即將開打!」


這名談判代表指出,日本反對的態度相當堅決。在全球每年捕撈的黑鮪魚中,日本就吃掉其中三分之二,主要以壽司與生魚片供應。分析師說,中國與加拿大也可能會反對。法國、西班牙及義大利已表態支持。

普優環境組織(Pew Enviroment Group)政策總監利博曼指出,「如果今年杜哈大會決議停止(黑鮪魚)貿易,所有科學家一致認為黑鮪魚將能完全復育;但若再歷經兩到五年的過度捕撈,黑鮪魚將無法復育」。

專家指出,若通過此禁令,移除時機得視該物種復育狀況而定,時間大約會在十年以上。


一隻重達220公斤的黑鮪魚在日本拍賣售價可達16萬美元,高昂價格成為業者過度捕撈的極大誘因。

近年來在公海的大規模捕撈已造成黑鮪魚數量銳減:地中海海域黑鮪魚數量減少逾三分之二,西大西洋則減少了80%。


法國海洋研究機構IFREMER也指出,拖吊船隊在地中海海域所捕撈的產量,「遠超過魚群的繁殖能力」。


法國海洋生物學家佛頓努則認為,「如果大家都能遵循大西洋鮪類資源保育協會(ICCAT)的新配額,科學家就不會有任何要求禁止跨國魚類貿易的立場」。ICCAT今年將全球捕撈量配額減少到1.35萬噸


新聞辭典/CITES


「瀕臨絕種野生動植物國際貿易公約」(CITES,或稱華盛頓公約)是由全球80國在1973年簽署,如今共有175成員國,保護的交易物種超過3.5 萬種,共分成三層級:


第一:瀕臨絕種、禁止或嚴格限制買賣的約530種動物和逾300種植物,如老虎、類人猿、雪豹、蘭花、仙人掌等。黑鮪魚也將在此次杜哈會議表決是否列入。


第二:「不見得瀕臨絕種,不過買賣必須控制以避免危害生存」的4,460種動物和2萬多種植物,如部份靈長類、鯨魚、鱷魚、大鯨鯊等。


第三層級:包括至少一國明文規定保護、且必須透過「國際合作」監督買賣的近300物種,包括中國紅珊瑚、突尼西亞的鹿羚等。

【2010/03/12 經濟日報】@ http://udn.com/

2010年3月10日 星期三

The Copenhagen Climate Change Accord

The Copenhagen Climate Change Accord

By Daniel Bodansky

ASIL Insight
February 16, 2010
Volume 14, Issue 3

Available at http://www.asil.org/insights100212.cfm


Introduction

Since the Kyoto Protocol's entry into force in 2005, attention has focused on the question of what to do after 2012, when the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period ends. Should the Kyoto Protocol be extended through the adoption of a second commitment period, with a new round of emission reduction targets for developed country parties? And, if so, should a new agreement be adopted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)[1], which addresses the emissions of countries that either are not parties to the Kyoto Protocol[2] (the United States) or do not have Kyoto emissions targets (developing countries)? Or should a single new agreement be adopted that replaces the Kyoto Protocol and is more comprehensive in coverage, addressing both developed and developing country emissions?


The Copenhagen Conference of the Parties (COP), which met from December 7-19, 2009, had been intended as the deadline to resolve these questions about the post-2012 climate regime – a view reflected in the unofficial slogan for the conference, "seal the deal."[3] The decision by more than one hundred heads of state or government to attend heightened public expectations that the Copenhagen Conference would result in a major breakthrough; and more than 40,000 people registered, making Copenhagen one of the largest environmental meetings in history. But the lack of progress in the negotiations in the months leading up to Copenhagen suggested that hopes for a full-fledged legal agreement were unrealistic. In the end, the Copenhagen conference resulted only in a political agreement, the Copenhagen Accord,[4] which was negotiated by the leaders of the world's major economies, but was not formally adopted by the conference, leaving its future prospects uncertain.
 
 
The Copenhagen Accord
 
The Copenhagen Accord is a political rather than a legal document, negotiated by a group of about twenty-five heads of state, heads of government, ministers, and other heads of delegations.
 
Key elements of the Accord include the following:
 
Long-term vision – The Copenhagen Accord recognizes the need to limit global temperature increase to no more than 2° Celsius. States were unable to agree on other methods of defining the regime's long-term objective, for example, in terms of an upper bound on atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases such as 350 or 450 parts per million (ppm), or a long-term goal to reduce global emissions by 50% by 2050 (the so-called "50 by 50" target, which the G-8 has endorsed), or a target date for the peaking of global emissions. In deference to the small island states, which had pushed for a 1.5 degree limit on global temperature change, the Copenhagen Accord provides that the assessment of the Accord by 2015 include consideration of this stronger target.
 
Developed country mitigation – Over the past year, general consensus has emerged that developed countries should undertake economy-wide emissions reduction targets for the post-2012 period, although countries have differed about the stringency of these emissions reduction targets, the base-year from which reduction targets should be measured, and whether the targets should be defined using international accounting rules (as in Kyoto) or national legislation (as the U.S. has proposed). The Copenhagen Accord establishes a bottom-up process that allows each Annex I party to define its own target level, base year and accounting rules, and to submit its target in a defined format, for compilation by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Under the terms of the Accord, Annex I countries "commit to implement" their targets, individually or jointly, subject to international monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV).
 
Developing country mitigation – As with developed country emissions targets, the Copenhagen Accord establishes a bottom-up process by which developing countries will submit their mitigation actions in a defined format, for compilation by the UNFCCC Secretariat. It provides that developing countries will submit greenhouse gas inventories every two years, that developing country mitigation actions will be subject to domestic MRV, and that the results of this domestic MRV will be reported in biennial national communications, which will be subject to "international consultations and analysis under clearly defined guidelines." The Copenhagen Accord also establishes a registry for listing nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs) for which international support is sought, and provides that supported NAMAs will be subject to international MRV in accordance with COP guidelines.
 
Financial assistance – In Copenhagen, the discussions about financial support revolved around the typical issues: how much money, from what sources, and with what governance arrangements? The Copenhagen Accord addresses only the first of these issues, leaving the other two for future resolution. It creates a "collective commitment" for developed countries to provide "new and additional resources . . . approaching $30 billion" for the 2010-2012 period, balanced between adaptation and mitigation, and sets a longer-term collective "goal" of mobilizing $100 billion per year by 2020 from all sources, but links this money to "meaningful mitigation actions and transparency on implementation" (para. 8). It also calls for governance of adaptation funding through equal representation by developing and developed country parties, but does not establish governance arrangement for finance more generally. Finally, it calls for the establishment of a Copenhagen Green Climate Fund (para. 10) as an operating entity of the UNFCCC's financial mechanism, as well as a High Level Panel to consider potential sources of revenue to meet the $100 billion per year goal.


Forestry – In the run-up to Copenhagen, the potential to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (known as "REDD-plus") received considerable attention. The principal question has been whether to finance REDD-plus from public funds or by providing carbon credits. The Copenhagen Accord calls for the "immediate establishment" of a mechanism to help mobilize resources for REDD-plus from developed countries and acknowledges the "need to provide positive incentives," without resolving the issue of public vs. private support.

Monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) – As with the mitigation issue, the MRV discussions have concerned the level of MRV as well as the parallelism/differentiation between developed and developing country MRV. The Copenhagen Accord calls for "rigorous, robust and transparent" MRV of Annex I emissions reductions and financing, "in accordance with existing and any further guidelines adopted by the COP." As noted above, supported NAMAs by developing countries will be subject to international MRV "in accordance with guidelines adopted by the COP," while so-called "autonomous" mitigation actions will be verified nationally and reported in national communications every two years and subject to "international consultations and analysis under clearly defined guidelines that will ensure that national sovereignty is respected."


The Future of the Copenhagen Accord

Despite agreement on the Copenhagen Accord by the heads of state or government of more than twenty-five countries, including all of the major economies, the conference was unable to "adopt" the Accord due to objections by a small group of countries, led by Sudan, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Nicaragua, which refused to join consensus, arguing that the negotiation of the Copenhagen Accord by a smaller group represented a "coup d'état" against the United Nations because it bypassed the formal meetings. After an all-night session, the impasse was ultimately broken through a decision to "take note of" the Copenhagen Accord, giving it some status in the UNFCCC process but not as much as approval by the COP. Those countries that wish to "associate" themselves with the Copenhagen Accord are to notify the UNFCCC Secretariat for inclusion in the list of countries at the beginning of the Accord.


As of February 10, 2010, the UNFCCC Secretariat had received submissions from more than ninety countries, representing more than 80% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, regarding their plans to reduce their GHG emissions and/or their wish to be "associated" with the Copenhagen Accord. In many cases, countries providing information on their mitigation actions have expressly "associated" themselves with the Copenhagen Accord, but a number of countries - most notably China, India, Brazil, and South Africa - did not do so expressly.

The Copenhagen Accord asserts that it will be "operational immediately," but fully operationalizing its terms will require further acts – for example, the spelling out of the guidelines for international consultation and analysis of developing country mitigation actions, and the establishment of the various bodies envisioned in the Accord (a High Level Panel to study potential sources of revenue, the Copenhagen Green Climate Fund, and a new Technology Mechanism). Ordinarily, this work would be carried out by the COP. But if some countries continue to block consensus in the COP, as occurred in Copenhagen, then this elaboration of the Copenhagen Accord might need to be done by the "associators" group.


Conclusion

Although the Copenhagen Accord has been criticized by some as inadequate, it represents a potentially significant breakthrough. True, the emission reduction pledges announced thus far do not put the world on a pathway to limiting climate change to 2° C, the ostensible long-term goal of the Accord.[5] But the participating states did agree to list their national actions internationally and to subject their actions to some form of international scrutiny, even when their actions do not receive any international support. Plus, the Accord articulates a quantified long-term goal for the first time (no more than 2° C temperature increase) and puts significant new funds on the table, both for the short and medium terms.

As a political necessity, the Copenhagen Accord continues to reflect the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, but in a very different manner than in Kyoto. Developed countries committed to implement economy-wide emission reduction "targets," subject to international MRV, while developing country "actions" will be subject to international MRV only if they receive international support and to national MRV otherwise. Nevertheless, the Copenhagen Accord reflects an apparent shift by China, India, Brazil, and South Africa, which begins to break the so-called "firewall" between developed and developing countries. For the first time, major developing countries have agreed to reflect their national emission reduction pledges in an international instrument, to report on their GHG inventories and their mitigation actions in biennial national communications, and to subject their actions either to MRV (for internationally supported actions) or "international consultation and analysis under clearly defined guidelines that will ensure that national sovereignty is respected" (for domestically supported actions).

This outcome may seem like a rather modest achievement, but it represents some measure of "internationalization" of developing country actions. In any event, if world leaders could not agree to more through direct negotiations, under an intense international spotlight, it is hard to see why mid-level negotiators will be able to achieve more anytime soon. As a result, the Copenhagen Accord may well represent the high-water mark of the climate change regime for some time to come.


Endnotes

[1] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, May 9, 1992, 31 I.L.M. 849 (1992) [hereinafter UNFCCC].

[2] Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, 3d Sess., UN Doc. FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (Dec. 10, 1997), 37 I.L.M. 22 (1998).

[3] The Copenhagen Conference was a combined meeting of the Fifteen Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC (COP-15) and the Fifth Meeting of the Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (CMP-5). For background on the Copenhagen Conference, see Cymie R. Payne, State of Play: Changing Climate at Copenhagen, ASIL INSIGHT, Dec. 8, 2009, available at http://www.asil.org/files/insight091208pdf.pdf.

[4] The Copenhagen Accord, http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_15/application/pdf/cop15_cph_auv.pdf (advance unedited version).

[5] Kelly Levin & Rob Bradley, Comparability of Annex I Emission Reduction Pledges (World Resources Institute, Working Paper, Feb. 2010).


 
(本篇由助教發布)

The WTO Seal Products Dispute: A Preview of the Key Legal Issues

The WTO Seal Products Dispute: A Preview of the Key Legal Issues

By Simon Lester

ASIL Insight

January 13, 2010
Volume 14, Issue 2

Available at http://www.asil.org/insights100113.cfm

The recent adoption by the European Parliament and Council of a Regulation banning marketing and importation of all seal products from commercial hunting[1] has triggered open opposition by Canada, Norway, and other countries with seal hunting traditions. Canada requested dispute settlement consultations under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement concerning this legislation – the WTO’s 400th trade dispute – and was quickly joined by Norway.[2]

It is hard not to be emotional about the underlying issues, whichever side you may be on. For those supporting the ban, it is an important step against the cruel and inhumane practice of clubbing seals to death. But for those who hunt seals, the hunt is their livelihood, and they claim it is practiced in a manner that makes every effort to be responsible and is no worse than many other common practices related to killing animals.


Background

The debate over trade in seal products has been ongoing since the 1980s, when the European Council (EC) adopted a Directive banning importation of seal pups’ skins and related products, and Canada ended commercial hunting of “whitecoat” seal pups.[3] The latest EU ban, which covers all products of commercial seal hunting, and the recent WTO consultation requests filed in response, may open a new chapter in the debate. As the chances of adjudication in the WTO’s dispute settlement system increase, the role of WTO law becomes more important. There is still time for negotiation. Indeed, the complainants’ preferred option may be to reach a compromise settlement with the EU on these issues; for example, the parties could reach agreement on humane standards for harvesting seals, thus allowing the export of seal products to the EU as long as the standards are met. Nonetheless, as the consultation process moves forward, it is worth examining the relevant WTO law.


WTO Provisions

The key provisions cited in the requests for consultations are the following: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Article XI:1 (Import Restrictions); GATT Article I:1 (Most Favored Nation Treatment); GATT Article III:4 (National Treatment); Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) Article 2.1 (National Treatment and Most Favored Nation Treatment); and TBT Agreement Article 2.2 (Necessity). In addition, the European Union is almost certain to invoke some of the exceptions in GATT Article XX as a defense, most likely sub-paragraph (a) (public morals), sub-paragraph (b) (the part related to animal health), or sub-paragraph (g) (conservation of exhaustible natural resources).

A full analysis of all of the legal issues involved would require a review of some very detailed WTO jurisprudence, and is thus beyond the scope of this piece. However, it is possible to briefly introduce some of the key legal considerations at the heart of the case.


Non-discrimination

An important question in this case is whether the EU ban discriminates against (or among) foreign products. This issue arises under TBT Agreement Article 2.1, GATT Articles I: 1 and III:4, and the GATT Article XX introductory clause.


The principle of non-discrimination is at the core of WTO rules. At first glance, the EU ban seems consistent with this principle, as it is neutral on its face. It does not single out “foreign” or ”imported” products, but rather applies to all products, regardless of their country of origin. In practice, however, the impact of the ban will fall most heavily upon foreign entities, in particular those of Canada and Norway. Moreover, the law’s impact on some foreign entities looks even more significant when it is pointed out that the EU does not ban bullfighting or other arguably similar cruel or inhumane practices involving livestock or other animals. The question might be raised why the EU did not pass a broad animal welfare law that sets out rules for both foreign and domestic products, instead of focusing only on the narrow sub-category of seal products, a sub-category made up almost exclusively of foreign goods.

Necessity of the Measure

A second overarching legal issue is whether the ban is necessary to achieve the EU’s animal welfare goals. Considerations of necessity arise under TBT Agreement Article 2.2, as well as affirmative defenses under GATT Articles XX (a), for measures necessary to protect public morals, and XX (b), for measures necessary to protect human, animal, or plant life or health.


Under the necessity provisions, adjudicators will weigh the measure’s contribution to its goals against its negative impact on trade. A question that might arise in this regard is whether there is a less onerous measure that would accomplish the same policy goals without affecting trade as much. For example, instead of a ban, the EU could label seal products to inform consumers about the harms to seals, thus allowing the consumers to make an informed purchasing decision (this alternative was proposed during the EU parliamentary debate on the measure). The exemption for products of seal hunting by Inuits[4] or non-profit entities also may call into question the contribution the measure makes to its purported goals.


As an additional point, if the EU argues that its ban is justified under GATT Article XX (a) or (b), a WTO panel could be faced with the difficult task of determining whether an importing WTO Member can justify import bans reacting to events occurring outside its own territory. And if the WTO were to accept the EU’s justification for an import ban on seal products based on EU consumers’ moral concerns about seal harvesting practices abroad, then what happens if a WTO Member’s law punishes imports from countries that do not legally guarantee labor rights based on moral concerns?


Issues under the TBT Agreement

The TBT Agreement is a relatively new trade agreement with little jurisprudence to help explain the scope of its provisions. As a result, the likely outcome of claims under this Agreement is difficult to assess. One initial consideration is whether the Agreement even applies, as the EU may argue that the seal products ban is not a “technical regulation” that is covered by the Agreement.


Assuming the TBT Agreement applies, a systemic issue that may be of importance in this case is the relationship between GATT Article XX and the TBT Agreement. While the TBT Agreement establishes non-discrimination as an obligation, the TBT Agreement (unlike the GATT) does not have an exception for health/environment/public morals measures. Instead, it establishes a separate obligation related to measures used for these purposes. Thus, instead of the rule-exception framework of GATT Articles I and III, on the one hand, and GATT Article XX, on the other hand, the TBT Agreement appears to set out two separate rules: one rule requiring most-favored nation/national treatment and another rule requiring that measures be no more trade-restrictive than necessary.

One result of this structure is that the TBT Agreement, unlike the GATT, appears to provide no legal shelter for measures that deny national treatment. Thus, where under the GATT a national treatment violation could be defended under GATT Article XX, under the TBT Agreement no such defense exists. At first glance, it appears that the TBT Agreement rules are much stricter. However, it may be worth noting the following preambular language in the TBT Agreement:

Recognizing that no country should be prevented from taking measures necessary to ensure the quality of its exports, or for the protection of human, animal or plant life or health, of the environment, or for the prevention of deceptive practices, at the levels it considers appropriate, subject to the requirement that they are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail or a disguised restriction on international trade, and are otherwise in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement.

While this language does not create an obligation, it does “recognize” that certain measures should not be prevented. In this regard, it loosely tracks the language of GATT Article XX, including the sub-paragraphs that allow countries to pursue specific policies, as well as the non-discrimination requirement of the Article XX introductory clause (the “chapeau”). In particular, the preambular language refers to measures “necessary . . . for the protection of human, animal or plant life or health, of the environment”—similar to the language of Articles XX(b) and (g)—and “the requirement that they are not applied in a manner which would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail or a disguised restriction on international trade” (the language of Article XX’s introductory clause). In a sense, the language reads like an exception, although the use of the terms “should” and “recognize” appears to prevent it from being operative. Thus, a key question in the seal products dispute may be, what impact does this language have on the interpretation of the TBT Agreement obligations?[5]



Conclusions

One might expect that core WTO principles, such as non-discrimination and necessity, would have clear legal standards. However, trade adjudicators have gone back and forth over the years on the issue of non-discrimination, while the “necessity” standard has evolved and has yet to be examined in the TBT Agreement context. There is a great deal of uncertainty as to how a WTO panel would address these issues in the context of the seal products ban in dispute. Thus, the outcome of a panel dispute would be far from sure.

In addition to all of the legal arguments, a more general question underlying this dispute is the following: To what extent should WTO rules intrude into the domestic policies of member governments? Most people can see the connection to trade of an explicitly discriminatory measure that says, for example, “foreign products are not allowed.” However, when a WTO panel rules on laws that are nominally origin-neutral, like the seal products ban, a finding of WTO-inconsistency may be viewed as meddling in domestic regulation, undercutting the WTO’s legitimacy. It would matter very much how a WTO panel hearing this case approached its review. Any ruling that this ban violates WTO rules should be spelled out in plain and simple terms that ordinary people can understand, and not buried in legal jargon. Otherwise, the strong emotions of the case may rise up to overshadow and undermine the legal aspects.


Along with the relationship between WTO law and domestic regulatory autonomy, the panel may also have to navigate the connection between WTO law and international law. For example, in support of arguments that the ban is not justified, the complainants may emphasize the role of international agreements in the protection of animal welfare. In the absence of such agreements on seal hunting, the claimants may argue that unilateral trade action is not permitted. Addressing such international law issues in GATT/WTO dispute settlement has been controversial in the past and is likely to be so here as well.

As a final point, given the legal uncertainties and the sensitive issues involved, it is possible that “politics” could play an important role as well. In this regard, it may be worth recalling a dispute between Canada and the EU from a few years ago with similar legal claims and sensitivities: the EC - Asbestos[6] dispute, which involved an EU ban on certain asbestos products. There, Canada’s legal claims were rejected. However, a good deal of legal uncertainty remained even after the panel and Appellate Body reports were circulated.[7] While the cases have a number of differences, and thus drawing guidance from Asbestos should be done with caution, one lesson may be the following: when confronted with difficult legal issues, in a situation where the legitimacy of the WTO might be called into question, the panelists hearing a case will almost certainly feel the pull of “politics,” as much as they may try their best to ignore it.



Endnotes

[1] See European Parliament and Council Regulation (EC) 1007/2009, 2009 O.J. (L286) 36, available at http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2009/november/tradoc_145264.pdf.

[2] Request for Consultations by Canada, European Communities - Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, WT/DS400/1 (Nov. 2, 2009); Request for Consultations by Norway, European Communities-Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, WT/DS401/1 (Nov. 5, 2009). Canada requested WTO consultations two years ago in relation to import bans of Belgium and the Netherlands (which are now pre-empted by Regulation (EC) No. 1007/2009). See Request for Consultations by Canada, European Communities - Certain Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, WT/DS369/1 (Sept. 25, 2007).


[3] Council Directive 83/129, 1983 O.J. (L 91) 30 (EEC). Similar concerns have been raised in the past with respect to the long-standing U.S. ban on sale or importation of any seal products. See Request by Inuit Circumpolar Conference to Have the U.S. Import Ban on Marine Mammal Products Removed, available at http://www.highnorth.no/Library/Trade/GATT_WTO/re-to-h.htm; for a legal analysis of the United States’ bans consistency with the GATT carried out by a Canadian law professor, see TED L. MCDORMAN, HIGH NORTH ALLIANCE, THE GATT CONSISTENCY OF THE U.S. U.S. IMPORT EMBARGO ON HARP-SEAL FUR COATS FROM GREENLAND (2007), available at http://www.highnorth.no/Library/Trade/GATT_WTO/th-ga-co.htm.

[4] Inuit is a term for a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia, and the United States.

[5] See Appellate Body Report, China – Measures Affecting Trading Rights and Distribution Services for Certain Publications and Audiovisual Entertainment Products, ¶¶ 205-233, WT/DS363/AB/R (Dec. 21, 2009). In this decision, the Appellate Body concluded that Article XX was available outside the context of the GATT, as it applied this provision to China’s Accession Protocol. This result probably gives some hope to those who would like to apply Article XX to the TBT Agreement, although the specific textual language differs.

[6] Appellate Body Report, European Communities – Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products, WT/DS135/AB/R (Apr. 5, 2001).

[7] For example, the TBT Agreement claims were never addressed on their substance, and the Appellate Body’s reversal of the GATT Article III:4 claims pushed the jurisprudence in a very different direction than the panel had gone.



(本篇由助教發布)

台灣國際法地位資料補充(二) 研究所考古題

1951年9月8日盟國在美國舊金山簽署對日和約,其中第二條乙項規定:「日本放棄對台灣澎湖列島的一切權利、權利根據與要求」,並沒有明文將台灣歸還給哪一個國家,爾後在1952年4月28日與中華民國締結的雙邊條約中,仍然沒有明文規定台灣歸還中華民國,因此產生了「台灣法律地位未定論」的說法。你認為台灣法律地位是否未定,請述明看法。 【98年台大政治所】

答:
有關台灣法律地位的爭議,吾人應從相關國際文件與國家領土取得的原因分別探討。茲分述如下:

一、規範台灣法律地位的國際文件:
(一) 1943年《開羅宣言》與1945年《波茨坦公告》:
    此二文件為第二次世界大戰期間規範台灣主權歸屬最重要的文件,其中《開羅宣言》明定日本應將台灣歸還給中華民國,爾後《波茨坦公告》復規定開羅宣言之條款必須實現。換言之,此二戰時文件接明定將台灣歸還中華民國。

(二) 1945年《日本投降文書》:
    部分學者質疑,《開羅宣言》與《波茨坦公告》僅為二戰期間同盟國基於政治考量與軍事需要所發表的片面聲明,其並未踐行國際條約的締結程序,且日本未參加開羅會議與波茨坦會議,故此二文件對於日本無拘束力。然而,本於1945年9月2日簽署並向戰勝國遞交《日本投降文書》,其中承諾接受《波茨坦公告》所列的條件(即開羅宣言的條款必須實現),日本於該文書中明示接受《開羅宣言》與《波茨坦公告》的條件,使得此二份備受爭議的戰時文件具備合法性,因此,日本應依《投降文書》的規定,將台灣歸還給中華民國。

(三) 1951年《舊金山對日和約》與1952年《中日和約》:
    雖然《舊金山和約》第2條(B)款與《中日和約》第2條皆僅明定日本放棄台澎的一切權利、權利主張及要求,而未言明將台灣歸還與何國,因而產生「台灣法律地位未定論」的說法;然而,根據《中日和約》相關條款的規定,一方面日本於該約中明文承認與中國在1941年以前締結的一切條約或協定,均因戰爭結束而歸於無效。(第4條)使得日本取得台灣的法律依據已於《中日和約》生效後消失;另一方面該約適用的領域包含當時或日後中華民國政府有效統治的地區(第10條),而該約生效當時中華民國已有效占領並統治台灣。換言之,《中日和約》的適用須以台灣歸屬中華民國為前提。因此,依據《中日和約》第4條與第10條的規定,台灣主權歸屬中華民國殆無疑義。

二、國際法上有關領土取得之原因:
    即使承認《舊金山對日和約》及《中日和約》的相關條款引發台灣法律地位未定的爭議,然而當《中日和約》正式生效後,台灣即成為「無主地」(terra nullius),各國均得對其加以「先占」而取得領土主權。中華民國政府於日本戰敗宣布投降後即代表同盟國對台灣進行軍事占領和行政管理,在《舊金山對日和約》與《中日和約》生效後仍持續占領台灣,並於該地區實施有效統治迄今而未遭任何國家反對。基於「無主地先占」、「有效占領」及「占有保持主義」等原則,中華民國實已取得台灣地區的領土主權。

綜上所述,無論依相關國際條約或國家領土取得原因,台灣領土主權歸屬於中華民國,並非法律地位未定。

(本篇由助教發布)

台灣國際法地位補充資料(一) 助教個人觀點

本篇文章是助教於五年前研讀台灣法律地位爭議的相關資料後所寫下的心得(當時還在念碩士班),現在支字未改地將原文重現,觀點或論述不可避免會有缺漏或謬誤之處,不過對於初次接觸國際法的學弟妹而言,應該還算有參考價值。



一、國際層面-台灣主權未定

提及戰後台灣之主權歸屬問題,多數人都會馬上聯想到1943年《開羅宣言》、1945年《波茲坦宣言》之內容,中國亦主張依上述二國際文件,其已取得台灣之主權,並視此類文件之性質如同國際條約一般,具有國際法上之拘束力,然而此主張有待商榷。


首先,自國際法之角度觀察,1943年《開羅宣言》及1945年《波茲坦宣言》均屬「類似國際條約之文件」,依學者勞特派特及奧康奈爾之見解,其並非國際條約,而此類文件欲對談判國產生拘束力須具備以下要件:第一,條約之規定是否具體明確,且為談判國創設權利義務;第二,談判代表是否有於文件上簽名;第三,談判代表是否具備締約權限。事實上,參與1943年開羅會議之談判代表(美國總統羅斯福、英國首相邱吉爾及中國國民政府主席蔣介石)均未於《開羅宣言》中簽名,故《開羅宣言》對談判國美國、英國及中國並不具法律上拘束力。

再者,自英美國際法學者之見解觀察,他們均視上述宣言為「戰時聲明」,其並未經各國國會批准,與一般國際條約之締結程序迥異,故其性質並不等同國際條約。此外,即使勉強承認上述宣言具有國際條約之性質,由於參與開羅會議的美英兩國,於《開羅宣言》公佈後一再否認該宣言的內容,使該宣言的合意基礎完全消失,此更證明《開羅宣言》不具任何國際法效力。具體實例如下:
A. 英國副外相梅休於1949年在英國下議院作證時陳述:「台灣法律地位的變更,只有等待對日和約正式簽訂才能決定。」英國首相邱吉爾也發表類似意見:「開羅宣言只表示一般目標,蔣介石統治台灣只是暫時性而已,所以不能視為開羅宣言已規定台灣是中國之一部份。」
B. 美國總統杜魯門曾於1950年發表《韓國聲明》(一般通稱台灣中立化聲明),該聲明亦反對《開羅宣言》中有關「日本所竊取的滿洲、台灣、澎湖必須歸還中華民國」之規定,並表示《開羅宣言》沒有對台澎的最終歸屬作出規定,此外1954年美國務卿杜勒斯亦發表正式外交聲明,再度重申1950年《杜魯門聲明》之內容。
 
因此,上述英美二國之對外聲明對於台灣主權歸屬之立場完全違背1943年《開羅宣言》及1945年《波茲坦宣言》之內容,故上述戰時宣言已因戰後各國實踐之不一致而歸於無效或退居次要地位。
 
於是,吾人不應繼續陷入《開羅宣言》及《波茲坦宣言》之迷思中,應重新定位台灣之國際法地位,國際實踐對於台灣主權歸屬爭議所持之見解應可作為我們判斷之重要參考依據。誠如前述,無論是1950年《杜魯門聲明》、1954年《杜勒斯聲明》或英國首相及外長之聲明,均突顯一個事實-台灣之主權歸屬未定,茲就上述重要聲明依序介紹如下:
(1)1950年《杜魯門聲明》:1950年6月27日,美國總統杜魯門公開發表《韓國聲明》(Statement of Korea,一般簡稱杜魯門聲明),其聲明內容特別指出:「台灣之未來地位,應俟太平洋地區之安全恢復後與日本成立和約時,再予討論,或由聯合國予以考慮。」此項聲明又稱為《台灣中立化宣言》,開啟日後「台灣主權未定論」爭議之序幕。
(2)1954年《杜勒斯聲明》:1952年《中日和約》締結後,美國國務卿杜勒斯於1954年12月13日作出本聲明,其重要內容如下:「在技術上,台灣與澎湖群島的主權歸屬問題還未解決,因為日本和約中僅包含日本對這些島嶼權利及名義的放棄,但將來之權利名義並未被對日和約決定,在中華民國與日本締結的和約中亦未對其決定,因此台、澎之法律地位與一向屬於中國領土的外島之法律地位不同。」
 
除上述文件外,支持「台灣主權未定論」之學者必定會援引1951年《舊金山對日和平條約》及1952年《中日和平條約》之規定作為本說更強而有力的佐證,在實際探討上述二和約中有關台灣主權歸屬之相關規定前,吾人有必要先確定「和平條約」之性質。就國際法而言,戰爭之正式結束有賴和約之締結,而一切於戰時所發表之文件亦須以和約作成最終決定。換言之,在戰時所有關於台灣地位之文件如《開羅宣言》及《波茨坦宣言》等,均僅係盟國基於戰爭勝利及軍事需要,共同發表之政策性聲明,真正決定台灣主權之歸屬問題者,應為1951年《舊金山和約》,其不僅有第二次世界大戰戰勝國參加,且戰敗國日本亦參與其中,故和平條約在國際法上具有重大意義,其不僅為國際條約,且法律地位亦高於戰時少數國家共同宣布之公告或宣言。
 
而上述二和約中決定台灣主權地位歸屬問題之條款幾乎如出一轍,如1951年《舊金山和約》第2條B款規定為:「日本放棄對台灣澎湖列島的一切權利、權原及要求。」雖然該和約明定台灣由日本脫離,惟並未明定台灣歸還中國,又1952年《中日和約》第2條仍僅再度重申:「茲承認依照1952年9月8日在美國舊金山簽訂之對日和約第2條,日本業已放棄對台灣及澎湖群島…之一切權利、權原及要求。」該和約中亦未明定台灣歸還中國。依此二和約上述條款之規定判斷,台灣主權並未歸屬於中國或其他任何國家,故「台灣主權歸屬未定」。
 
上述文件固有其歷史背景,以此類文件推定「台灣主權歸屬未定論」亦符合法理,然而衡諸《舊金山和約》締結後迄今60年之各國實踐及我國政府本身之立場,依筆者個人拙見,本說仍有以下缺失:
(1)若主張台灣主權歸屬未定,其背後所代表之意義為:自1951年《舊金山和約》締結後,日本已放棄對於台灣之主權或權利主張,惟因主權之歸屬未定,故台灣應屬「無主地」,各國均得「先占原則」取得對台灣之主權。事實上,日本在1951正式放棄對台灣之主權以前,台灣即已由中華民國政府進行「軍事占領(或接收)」,並有效統治台灣及其人民,此情形不僅持續至日本放棄對台主權後,更持續至今。因此,若依國際法上之「有效占領」、「占有保持主義」及「時效原則」,中華民國政府實際上已取得台灣之領土土權,則所謂「台灣主權未定論」之主張目前已不適用。
(2)其次,由日本法院眾多判例(如1959年「賴進榮案」、1960年「張富久告張明欽案」及1986年「光華寮案」)、美國國會於1979年4月通過之《台灣關係法》第4條之用語及我國與23個邦交國建立全面性外交關係等事實來判斷 ,世界各國肯認確實存在一個事實上或法律上之實體,對內藉以有效統治台灣及其人民,而對外又能代表台灣與其他國家進行交往。因此,台灣之主權並非未定,而係歸屬於中華民國。若台灣主權未定,則台灣無法與他國建立外交關係,且他國國內法律或司法判例亦不可能確定台灣之法律地位,惟此明顯違背目前之各國實踐。
(3)再者,就我國本身立場觀之,我國刻正拓展與其他國家之雙邊關係,以及積極加入多邊國際或區域組織,殊難想像我國會以「台灣主權未定論」作為外交訴求,此舉無異自斷國際生路,造成我國拓展外交空間之困境,故本理論應揚棄之。
 
二、其他國家之國內實踐-須依個案判定
 
由於各國對於台灣國際法地位之見解各不相同,故無法一概而論,然此卻顯示台灣國際法之特殊地位。誠如前述,中華民國歷經60年在台實施治權,對內確實有效統治台灣及其人民,對外與其他國家建立外交關係,並成為重要國際組織之成員(如APEC、WTO、眾多NGO),故世界上多數國家並不否認台灣具有特定程度之國際法主體地位,但對於代表台灣之「中華民國」,究屬「國家」、「一國之合法政府」、「一國之事實政府」或「類似國家之特殊實體」,各國實踐卻給予不同之評價,立基於此,本部分將分從美國、日本、與我國有正式外交關係之邦交國之個別觀點依序界定台灣之國際法地位。
(一)美國之觀點:


美國曾於50年代韓戰爆發期間發表《杜魯門聲明》(1950年)及《杜勒斯聲明》(1954年),此類外交聲明開啟日後台灣主權未定論之先聲,然時過境遷,美國對中國政策於70年代後已有所調整,考察當時美國行政、立法及司法部門之相關文獻,可確定台灣之主權係由中華民國享有,並非主權未定,惟實際探究相關文件,卻發現美國各機關對我國之國際法主體地位各有不同界定,茲美國行政、立法及司法機關之觀點依序分析如下:

A. 行政部門觀點:
1. 50年代:
1950年《杜魯門聲明》中雖將台灣定位為「主權未定」,但該聲明中亦提及以下用語:「…本人已請求『台灣之中國政府』停止對大陸一切海空活動…至於台灣之未來地位,應俟太平洋區域安全恢復與日本成立和約時,再予討論,或由聯合國予以考慮。」 判斷上述聲明之用語,衡諸當時國際局勢,可推定美國係將「台灣之中國政府」-中華民國定位為「事實上有效統治台灣之合法當局」,此屬對中華民國之「政府承認」,此外須注意者,當時美蘇冷戰對峙,中國大陸本土已被中共佔領,為圍堵蘇聯勢力繼續向外蔓延,《杜魯門聲明》中所稱之「台灣之中國政府」應屬戰略考量,依筆者個人見解,此處所謂「中國」係指地理概念而非法律概念,亦即台灣在地理上屬大中國之一部分,惟在法律上其主權仍然未定,僅由當時被承認為「合法政府」之中華民國代為行使行政治權,若美國宣稱中華民國乃代表中國之唯一合法政府,等同承認台灣歸屬於中國之事實,此豈不與該聲明本身、1951年《舊金山和約》及1952年《中日和約》之規定所確立的「台灣主權未定」相悖?
 
2. 70年代:
此時期中美台三邊關係發生重大變化,一方面,台灣之中華民國政府已持續並有效統治台灣20多年;另一方面,美國尼克森總統於1972年至中國上海進行訪問,會後並簽署《上海公報》,其中聲明美國「認知」(acknowledge)中國之主張,即「中國只有一個,台灣屬中國的一部份」。本聲明除開啟美國「一個中國政策」之序幕,但其更重要之意義在於國際法層面,蓋「認知」與「承認」(recognition)屬迥然不同之概念,認知某一主張非意味「承認」或「不承認」該主張,而僅係對於該主張之「理解」(understanding),因此自《上海公報》之上述用語可判定,美國當時雖逐漸和中共關係正常化,同時揭示其「一個中國政策」,但台灣並不必然屬於中國之一部分,換言之,有關台灣之法律地位,美方仍保留相當之迴旋空間。1979年1月1日美國與中華人民共和國正式建交,同日卡特總統發布《建交公報》,其內容亦未明確承認台灣屬中國之一部分,此外雷根總統於1982年8月17日簽署《八一七公報》,亦重申上述原則。 綜合上述,輔以國際法重要原則,可推定美國行政部門於70年代後對台灣之國際法地位定位如下:台灣之主權已因『中華民國政府』實施「有效統治」,並歷經時間之經過,依「時效原則」歸屬於中華民國政府,而非主權未定,此外美國未承認台灣屬於中國之一部分,故台灣未歸屬於中國。因此,美國行政部門此時期仍將中華民國定位為有效統治台灣之「政府」。
 
B. 立法部門觀點:
1979年1月1日,美國與中共建立正式之外交關係,並於同日發布《中美建交公報》,撤回對中華民國之官方承認,且與我斷交。依國際法上政府繼承之原則,我政府於美國之財產將由中共繼承,且我方在美國國內法上將無任何法律地位,台美關係嚴重受到影響,故美國國會於1979年3月通過《台灣關係法》(Taiwan Relations Act, 以下簡稱TRA),將政府承認之效果將美國國內法上全部排除,藉以規範台灣斷交後之特殊關係,並延續我方於美國境內之既得權利 。TRA中有關台灣法律地位之重要條款為第4條,其重要規定如下:
 
1. 美國與台灣雖無外交關係及承認,惟不致影響美國法律適用於台灣,凡美國法律提及有關「外國」、「外國政府」或「類似實體」時,此等條文均包括台灣,且此等法律亦應適用於台灣。
2. 美國與台灣雖無外交關係或承認,惟在任何情形下,不因此廢止、侵害、修改、否決或影響台美斷交前或斷交後依據美國法律所獲致之任何權利與義務,例如(但不限於)有關契約、債務或任何種類之財產行動。
3. 台灣依美國法律,於美國各法院原本享有之訴訟權及索償權,不得因無外交關係或承認而受到廢止、侵害、修改、拒絕或影響。
4. 美國於1979年1月1日以前被承認為中華民國之台灣統治當局間所締結,並迄1978年12月31日仍有效之各項條約及國際協定,除依法終止外,均應繼續有效。 
 
由TRA之通過及該法第4條之用語觀之,美國立法機關對於台灣之法律地位不確定,亦即明文承認,台灣為事實上存在之政治實體,然而其地位不定,可能是「國家」、「一國政府」或「類似國家或政府之特殊實體」。自我方有利之立場加以解釋(雖然美國非必然如此認定),應可將TRA第4條之規定解釋為,美國已事實承認,台灣為一客觀存在之「國家」。(但此論點頗有值得商榷之處)
 
C. 司法部門觀點:
美國司法機關對於台灣之定位與行政、立法機關截然不同,例如美國聯邦第二上訴法院曾於1992年「紐約美東影視案」中判定,台灣為一「國家」,美、台之間所締結之條約於斷交後仍繼續有效,不受外交關係終止之影響。筆者認為,美國法院對於台灣法律地位作出正確之解釋,蓋斷絕外交關係與撤回對該國之承認並無必然關聯性,換言之,兩國斷交不代表撤回對彼此之承認,例如美國與古巴政府斷交後,亦未因此而不承認古巴為國家。因此,就美國司法機關之立場判斷,係將台灣視為「事實上存在之國家」。
 
綜上所述,吾人可知,早期美國對於台灣國際法地位之定位並不確定,其定位可能因行政(有效統治台灣之政府)、立法(國家、一國政府或特殊實體)及司法機關(事實存在之國家)之見解而有所不同。然而,現今上述爭議已不復存在,蓋美國前任總統柯林頓曾於1996年訪問中國大陸,並於訪中之際對外發布重要之「美國對台之三不政策原則聲明」,其內容為:第一,不支持台灣獨立;第二,不支持一中一台或兩個中國;第三,不支持台灣加入任何以主權國家為要件之國際組織。 柯林頓政府之「對台三不政策」已嚴重減損台灣之國際法地位,對於我國務實外交及參與國際組織之活動造成相當程度之影響。不過吾人仍可自上述之外交聲明窺知美國目前對台灣國際法地位之觀點:美國目前係堅持「一個中國原則」,且認為台灣歸屬於中國(蓋美國不支持一中一台或兩個中國),但並非中華人民共和國之一省或一特別行政區;此外,由於美國不支持台灣「獨立」,故美國認為台灣並非主權獨立之國家,而僅重申七○至八○年代「中美三大公報」之內容,認為台灣當局為一「事實上存在之政府」。
 
(二)日本之觀點:
日本自1895年與中國締結《馬關條約》至1951年簽訂《舊金山和約》為止,在法律上或事實上均有效統治台灣,並合法擁有台灣之領土主權,此期間台灣主權之歸屬問題並無任何爭議。1951年《舊金山和約》第2條中雖明定,日本正式放棄對台灣之任何主權、權利或權原主張,但卻未明定台灣主權應歸屬於何國,故引發「台灣主權未定論」之討論。1950年開始,日本與中共間之關係開始正常化,惟台、日關係於1951年至1972年之期間仍未有爭議,此際日本政府仍承認在台灣之中華民國政府乃代表中國之唯一合法政府。然而,1972年日本與中共正式建交,並與我國斷交,由於日方改為承認中共乃代表中國之唯一合法政府,此時對於日本而言,台灣之國際法地位即出現爭議,吾人可由以下日本司法機關之判決理由,得知日本目前對於台灣之國際法人格定位:
 
A. 1959年東京高等裁判廳「賴進榮案」以及1960年大阪地方法院「張富久控張明欽案」之判決理由中,法院均認定台灣歸屬「中華民國」,並非中華人民共和國之一省或特別行政區。
B. 1972年日本與中共建交時,在雙方締結之《日中共同聲明》第3條中明定,日本政府對於中華人民共和國一再表明台灣為其領土不可分之一部分的主張,亦僅表示十分「理解」(acknowledge)及尊重(respect)之立場。換言之,即使中日建交後,日本政府對於台灣之國際法地位仍維持其既有立場,認為台灣歸屬「中華民國」,而非中華人民共和國之一部分。
C. 1986年2月4日,大阪高等法院於「光華寮案」中推翻下級法院之原判決,改判定光華寮之財產權應歸還中華民國。其主要理由是:中華民國政府自中華人民共和國政府成立迄今,在事實上排他且和平持續地支配及統治台灣及其周圍諸島,在此種舊政府(即中華民國政府)沒有完全被消滅,且仍有效統治一部分中國領土之情形下,舊政府擁有之財產若位於新政府統治之地區內,當然由新政府繼承之,惟舊政府在外國之財產不為新政府所繼承 。法院並於判決中指出,在政府繼承之情形中,若舊政府仍存在,並於事實上有效統治特定領域時,新舊政府之繼承屬於「不完全繼承」或「部分繼承」,且在訴訟開始之時雖曾被認定為事實政府(即中華人民共和國),但在訴訟進行期間已被法庭地國城認為合法政府,此一新政府承認之溯及效力,僅限於過去合法政府事實統治所未及之領域的財產。依本案判決,吾人可得知,日本政府係將台灣國際法人格定位為:台灣歸屬於中國,但並非「中華人民共和國政府所轄領域之一部分」,而係由「中華民國政府」有效統治。
 
(三)我國友邦之觀點:
 
依據國際法上國家承認之理論,兩國之間若正式建立全面性之外交關係,例如互派大使、公使,並於另一國境內互設大使館,則足以證明兩國已互為「法律承認」,亦即兩國已正式承認另一國乃主權獨立之國家。依上述理論,我國目前與23個國家建立正式之外交關係,並互派大使與互設使館,且使館名稱皆以「中華民國」命名,上述事實足以證明,我國友邦對於台灣國際法地位之見解為:台灣為一主權獨立之「國家」,其不屬於中華人民共和國之一部分,且台灣係以「中華民國」作為國家名稱。
 
綜上所述,吾人可知其他國家對於台灣之國際法地位各有不同立場,筆者試將各國之見解統整於下:
 
1. 認為中國只有一個,但存在二個有效統治部分領域之「政府」,持此見解者有日本、美國。
2. 認為台灣並不隸屬於中華人民共和國,而是主權獨立之「國家」,持此見解者為我國之邦交國。
3. 認為台灣事實上仍屬國家,惟因其地位特殊,對其無法給予法律承認,其僅得承認台灣乃一「類似國家之特殊實體」,持此見解者乃美國立法部門。
 
 
三、我國本身立場-意見仍然分歧 
至於我國學術界與政府對於台灣國際法人格之定位,迄今仍未有一致之見解,此對於台灣參與國際事務或加入國際組織等活動,皆有一定程度之負面影響。在此不評論台灣國際法地位對於參與國際事務之政治層面影響,而純就國際法層面分析學者與政府之見解,並以筆者個人所知加以評析。
 
(一)學者見解:
我國學者間對於台灣國際法地位之問題,有以下三項不同主張:
 
A. 認為台灣主權未定:
持本見解之學者為前法務部長陳定南及教育部長杜正勝,杜部長以歷史學者之觀點,援引前述眾多史料證明,台灣之法律地位自1951年《舊金山和約》締結後即屬未定,此不僅為歷史事實,亦為法律現存狀態。惟誠如前述,若主張台灣法律地位未定,則台灣無法對外主張國家權利,且因未賦予台灣明確之法律定位,對於統治台灣之當局將無法有效從事對外交往行為。
 
B. 認為台灣歸屬「中華民國」:
持本見解之學者為丘宏達教授、陳純一教授,其認為台灣基於《開羅宣言》、《波茲坦宣言》、《日本降伏文書》等國際文件之內容,毫無疑問地已歸屬於「中華民國」,故台灣之法律地位並非未定,而是屬於「中華民國」。惟若此本主張,可能產生以下問題:
 
1. 無論《開羅宣言》及《波茲坦宣言》,依多數國際法學者之見解,均認為此類文件僅屬「戰時宣言」,其並不具國際條約之性質,僅為同盟國基於戰爭之必要而對外發布之政策聲明。況且英、美二國於戰後發表之外交聲明,已完全推翻上述二宣言所為之承諾,故其效力誠有疑問。
 
2. 若各國於締結1951年《舊金山和約》時承認台灣屬於中華民國領土之一部分,理應將此主張納入和約中,然而締約國並未如此做,僅於該約第2條規定日本放棄對台灣之任何主權、權利及權原主張,但仍未明定台灣主權歸屬於何國,因此吾人不應遽以認定台灣主權歸屬於中華民國。
 
3. 若依傳統政府繼承之理論,部分國際法學者採取「全部繼承原則」,亦即一國政治體制更迭時,新政府原則上應全部繼承舊政府時期之權利及義務。因此,若認為台灣歸屬於「中華民國」,而本派學者又認為中華民國為事實上統治中國部分領域之政府,基於傳統國家繼承理論,中華民國原締結之對外條約所賦予之權利及義務皆將被剝奪,而改由中共繼承,此對於台灣從事國際活動之參與將造成負面影響。
 
C. 認為台灣為主權獨立之國家:
 
持本見解之學者為陳隆志教授、姜皇池教授及許慶雄教授,其認為台灣主權起初未定,但歷經國民黨政權60年來之實效統治,台灣已成為主權獨立之國家,但此並非亦未台灣必然歸屬於「中華民國」。筆者認為,此派學者之見解頗值採納,理由如下:
 
1. 依據國際法上「領土取得之原因」,日本於1951年簽署《舊金山和約》後,即已完全放棄對台灣之領土主權,且和約中亦未明定台灣之主權歸屬,故台灣於1951年《舊金山和約》生效後即成為「無主地」(res nullius),國民黨政權自得依國際法上之「先占原則」(occupation)占領台灣領土,並享有「初步(原始)權利」。
 
2. 依常設仲裁法院1928年「帕爾瑪斯島仲裁案」之判決理由,「先占」雖僅得對占領之領土取得初步(原始)權利,惟該實體若能「有效統治」該領土,則該政治實體即確定永久取得該領土之主權。國民黨政權自1945年軍事占領台灣迄今,已持續有效統治台澎及其人民,且其他國家對於國民黨政權實施主權之行為皆未提出異議,故國民黨政權事實上已等同取得台灣之領土主權。
 
3. 依姜皇池教授之見解,多數國家對於國家承認係採取「宣示說」,亦即他國之承認並不創造國家,僅是「確認」一政治實體已具有國家之屬性,姜教授更援引知名國際法學者Louis Henkin之見解:「…一政治實體事實上是國家,那它便是個國家,它便有國家的地位與能力,義務與權利。」 據此,由於國際實踐採「宣示說」,即使他國不承認台灣,台灣仍是客觀上存在之「主權獨立國家」。
 
4. 陳隆志及陳鴻俞教授另外指出,雖然國民黨政權1945年係對台灣進行「軍事占領」,並未取得台灣之領土主權,惟國際法上有「占有保持主義」之適用,亦即,基於長期持續有效占領之事實,為維持國界之穩定性,應由統治該領土之政治實體取得該地之主權。因此,國民黨政權起初雖僅對台灣進行「軍事占領」,惟因其有效統治台灣,且未受他國爭執,故已依本原則取得台灣之領土主權。
 
 
(二)政府立場:
 
1. 1991年我國通過《國家統一綱領》,作為兩岸政策之指導原則,自其中規定之內容加以觀察,可知當時我國政府係承認「一個中國存在兩個分治政府」之事實,故此時期我國係將兩岸問題定位為「政府承認問題」,並依此認定「中華民國為有效統治台灣之事實政府」。
 
2. 1992年11月,大陸「兩岸關係協會」與我國「海峽交流基金會」就解決兩會事務性商談中如何表明堅持「一個中國原則」之態度問題達成口頭表述之「九二共識」(92 Consensus)。該共識之精神強調:一個中國,共自表述,究其實質內容判斷,兩岸問題仍屬「政府承認」之問題,亦即由「中華民國政府」或「中華人民共和國政府」代表中國之問題,故此時期我國政府仍將兩岸問題定位為「政府承認問題」,並依此認定「中華民國為有效統治台灣之事實政府」。
 
3. 1999年,前總統李登輝在接受「德國之聲」專訪時提到以下內容:兩岸之關係,應「…定位在國家與國家,至少是特殊的國與國的關係,而非一合法政府,一叛亂團體,或一中央政府,一地方政府的『一個中國』的內部關係。」此即為一般熟知之「特殊兩國論」,自此我國政府已揚棄「一個中國」之說法,認為台灣並非中國之一部分,而是中國以外的一個主權獨立國家。
 
4. 陳水扁於2002年8月2日在世界台灣同鄉聯合會第29屆東京年會上,透過視訊發言向與會人士提出所謂「一邊一國論」,其中特別提及:「台灣是我們的國家,我們的國家不能被欺負、被矮化、被邊緣化及地方化,台灣不是別人的一部分;不是別人的地方政府、別人的一省,台灣也不能成為第二個香港、澳門,因為台灣是一個主權獨立的國家,簡言之,台灣跟對岸中國一邊一國,要分清楚。」換言之,陳總統之主張與李前總統相同,均認為台灣並不隸屬中國,而是一主權獨立之國家。
 
綜合上述,可知目前我國行政機關係將台灣定位為「主權獨立國家」,而不隸屬於「中華人民共和國」,究其實質,若台灣之地位為「主權獨立國家」,而非「有效統治一國特定領域之事實政府」,則應可推得台灣不隸屬於「中國」之結論,否則我國政府之主張即有自打嘴巴之謬誤。
 
四、結論(個人淺見)
 
綜合上述,可知台灣之國際法地位乃當今世界上最複雜、最難解之國際法議題,在可預見之將來,此爭議仍然無解,故吾人可自行依上述不同觀點判定台灣之國際法地位。筆者在此提出個人數點淺見,以對本文之爭議作出總結:
 
(一)台灣並非中國之固有領土,更非中華人民共和國之一省,中共亦從未統治過台灣。
 
(二)基於我國完全符合1933年《蒙特維多國家權利及義務公約》規定之國家客觀構成要件,加上目前國際實踐通說對國家承認採「宣示說」,即使我國未被其他國家承認,或他國未與我國建立正式、全面之外交關係,台灣仍為事實上存在之主權獨立國家。
 
(三)考量政治現實,為避免引發各國爭議,我國目前應以「中華民國」(Republic of China)名義對外宣稱台灣乃主權獨立國家,而中華民國與中華人民共和國彼此互不隸屬,均為主權獨立國家。
 
(四)若我國政府持續遵守對美方承諾之「一個中國原則」,將限縮我國之國際法地位,蓋若遵守本原則,則無異將我國國際法地位矮化為「一國事實上存在之政府」。另依據劍橋大學國際法教授James Crawford之見解,其亦不認為台灣為「主權獨立之國家」,僅為「中國之地方事實政府」 ,因為台灣本身並未對外主張自己為主權獨立之國家。因此,筆者建議我國政府日後逐漸調整外交政策,以「台灣」為名義加入國際多邊組織(特別是不具政治敏感性之組織),以使各國重視台灣主體性,進而強力宣傳台灣不隸屬中國之事實。
 
(本篇由助教發布)

國家及政府之繼承 重點整理

一、國家繼承之理論:

(一) 全部繼承說: 持此說者為Hugo Grotius、奧本海,係援引羅馬法中關於個人財產繼承之學說,主張被繼承國之全部權利義務由繼承國繼承。
(二) 重新開始說(否定繼承說): 認為當國家發生全部繼承(即被繼承國不存在)時,由於被繼承國之主體資格完全消失,而另一新國際法主體與其並無法律關聯,故新國完全不受被繼承國法律義務之拘束。被繼承國權利義務之繼承係出於新國家之自由意願,並無強迫其繼承之國際法規則。
(三) 折衷說: 持此說者為Hersh Lauterpacht、Jennings & Watts,一方面尊重繼承國之主權意志,另一方面認為繼承國權利義務與其管轄領土密不可分,若任憑繼承國恣意排除被繼承國之權利義務,在某些情況下顯非合理。故主張: 重新開始雖是國家繼承之一般法律原則,但並非毫無例外。若條約具備處置性、地區性或與繼承國密不可分等性質者,則繼承國仍應繼承此類條約。


二、國家繼承之情況(國家繼承問題發生之前提乃新國家之承認,此涉及"領土主權之移轉",由於領土主權移轉之情況甚多,故國家繼承也較複雜):

(一) 部分繼承(被繼承國仍存在):
     1. 分離: 如科索沃脫離塞爾維亞獨立建國,科索沃雖成功獨立,但塞爾維亞仍存在。
     2. 一國附屬領土或殖民地獨立建國: 如英、法二戰前於非洲地區建立之殖民地,受到二戰後去殖民化運動浪潮之衝擊,前殖民地紛紛獨立建國,但英、法仍然存在。
     3. 國家部分領土移轉給另一國: 如A國與B國透過協議,由A將其境內之甲地移轉予B,移轉後甲成為B國領土之一部分,但A國仍存在。
(二) 全部(完全)繼承(被繼承國不存在):
     1. 兼併: 一國透過發動侵略戰爭之方式,將他國於戰時或戰後予以兼併,由於目前國際上已普遍承認"禁止使用武力或威脅原則",故此種領土主權移轉之方式已不被准許。例如C國為擴展其國家領土,對鄰近之D國發動侵略戰爭,將後者予以兼併為其境內之一省。此種情形下,D國因遭到C國之兼併而消失。
     2. 分裂或解體: 如前蘇聯或前南斯拉夫境內之各分子國於1990年代初期紛紛脫離前蘇聯或前南斯拉夫獨立建國,此時前蘇聯與前南斯拉夫即因解體而不復存在。
     3. 兩國依協議合併為一國; 例如東西德於柏林圍牆倒塌後不久即透過協議完成統一,東德即因併入西德而不復存在。

四、國家在條約、財產、檔案及債務方面之繼承規則:
     參閱演習課補充資料(十)。
(本篇由助教發布)

國家及政府之承認 重點彙整

國家及政府之承認

一、二者之不同:
(一) 發生時點: 國家承認發生於新國家成立之時,大多伴隨領土主權之移轉;政府承認則發生於新政府成立之時,大多伴隨新舊政權之更迭,特別是透過不合乎憲政或法定程序之方式推翻舊政權。
(二) 法律性質: 對國家之承認原則上必然包括對其政府之承認(蓋政府為國家客觀構成要件之一);對新政府之承認不必重新承認其所屬國家(蓋一國政權之變更並不影響該國之繼續存在,即為國家繼續原則之具體闡釋)。
(三) 法律效果: 對於新國家之承認具有創設新國際法主體之效果;政府承認則僅承認一個能代表所屬國之新機關,並未產生新國際法主體。
(四) 考量要件: 國家承認主要考量1933年蒙特維多國家權利義務公約第一條揭櫫之四項要件(固定之人民、一定界限之領土、有效統治之政府,以及與他國交往之能力);政府承認則考量該政權是否能代表其所屬國從事國際法人之行為(主觀上須判斷是否願意且能夠遵守國際法之規則,客觀上則須判定該政權是否有效統治管轄領域內之人事物)。

二、承認(撤回承認)與建交(斷交)之關係:
(一) 承認一新實體為國家不必然代表前者必須與後者建交,蓋承認為"單方行為",而建交則為"雙方行為",二者屬性並不相同,無絕對關係;一國與新實體建交必然代表前者承認後者為國家,蓋建交屬"無須審視意圖之默示承認"方式。
(二) 撤回對一新實體之國家承認法理上必然代表前者與後者斷交,蓋前者既撤回對後者之國家承認,代表其認定後者已非國際法上所稱之"國家",亦即後者已喪失1933年蒙特維多國家權利義務公約第一條之構成要件,其中一項要件即"與他國交往之能力";相對地,一國與另一國斷交不必然代表前者撤回對後者之國家承認。舉例而言,由於1979年爆發美國駐德黑蘭大使館人員遭伊朗暴民劫持事件,美國遂於1980年宣布與伊朗斷交,然而美國並未因此而撤回對伊朗之國家承認。

三、國家承認之理論:
(一) 宣示說: 又稱為"證據性理論",主張國家存在為一客觀事實,其他國家承認與否不影響該國之國家屬性(statehood)。換言之,其他國家之承認僅具有"確認"或"宣示"新國家客觀存在之法律效果。本理論之缺失主要有以下二點: 1. 不被承認之國家實際上無法與他國進行交往;2. 本理論可能使以違反國際法基本原則(如禁止適用武力或威脅)而成立之新國家能例外合法地存在於國際社會中。
(二) 構成說: 又稱為"創設性理論",強調即使新實體完全具備1933年蒙特維多公約第一條之四項構成要件,其仍須獲得其他既存國家之承認,始具備國家屬性。換言之,既存國家之承認具有創設新國際法主體之法律效果。本理論亦有以下二缺失: 1. 本理論可能阻礙甚或剝奪少數族群"民族自決權"之行使;2. 本理論強調"國家人格須由他國予以創設"之主張違反國家主權平等原則。
(三) 二者之關係: 1. 雖然目前國際間以宣示說為通說,然構成說對於宣示說仍具補充作用,特別是二戰以後聯合國對於以違反國際法基本原則而成立之新國家,有要求各國不予承認之趨勢。就此而論,構成說仍有其存在之必要性與實益。2. 依據丘宏達老師與俞寬賜老師之見解,國家承認實踐上兼具"宣示"與"創設"之性質,二者無法斷然區分。雖然目前以宣示說為通說,但在眾多國家之司法實踐上,一個新國家必須在被承認後,始能在承認國國內法上取得"外國"之法律地位,就此而論,承認國之承認又具備"構成說"之性質。

四、事實承認與法律承認:
(一) 事實承認: 為"暫時性、局部性與非正式性"之承認,既存國家認為新實體當時或暫時具備國家屬性,但對其將來之發展所有保留。換言之,由於時事實承認僅具備暫時性,既存國家日後得隨時撤回對該實體之國家承認。
(二) 法律承認: 為"永久性、全面性與正式性"之承認,既存國家認定新實體已完全、充分具備國家屬性,且願與其建立全面性與正式性之外交關係。由於法律承認具有永久性,故除非新實體已喪失國家其中一項構成要件,否則既存國家不得任意撤回對該實體之國家承認。
(三)  二者之異同:
   1. 相同點: 依據俞寬賜老師之見解,無論是事實抑或法律承認,對於承認國國內法院之拘束力皆相同,均使被承認之國家有權以獨立主權者之地位與承認國交往。此外,無論何種承認,一旦給予承認,皆使國際社會誕生一個新國際法主體。最後,二種承認之回溯效力相同,皆使承認之效力溯及至新國家成立之日。
   2. 不同點:
     (1) 只有被法律承認之國家才能在承認國中提出財產請求。
     (2) 在國家繼承之情況,只有被法律承認之國家才能代表舊國家。
     (3) 被事實承認之國家無權獲得全部外交特權及豁免。
     (4) 由於事實承認具臨時性,故既存國家可隨時撤銷;然法律承認具備永久性,故被法律承認之國家除非喪失國家構成要件,否則不得任意撤回。
     (5) 依據史塔克(J. G. Starke)之見解,若某國准許其屬地獨立,則該獨立之新國家可逕獲法律承認。
     (6) 依據M. Akehurst之見解,對以違反國際法基本原則而成立之新國家而言,法律承認可解除其政權之非法性,事實承認則不足以使其合法化。

五、被承認與不被承認之法律效果:
(一) 被承認:
     1. 國際法上之效果:
        (1) 新國家成為國際法主體,享有並得主張國際法賦與之權利,亦應承擔國際法課予之義務與責任。
        (2) 新國家有權與他國進行正式或非正式之外交領事關係。
        (3) 承認具有"溯及既往"效力,即回溯至新國家成立之日起,其所從事之行為均具有法律效力。

     2. 國內法上之效果: 新國家在承認國國內法上具備法律人格,得於承認國境內享受權利並負擔義務,如訴訟權、管轄豁免、財產請求權等。

(二) 不被承認:
      1. 國際法上之效果:
         (1) 不被承認之國家若具備國家屬性,他國絕無可能完全忽視其存在,仍須將其視同國家對待(此並非意味既存國家給予該實體承認)。
         (2) 某些國際法上之權利僅存在於相互承認之國家間,如外交特權及豁免、國家主權豁免等,則不被承認之國家不得享有此等權利。
         (3) 某些國際法之基本原則(特別是具備習慣法或強行法性質者,如禁止使用武力或威脅),不被承認之國家仍須遵守。

      2. 國內法上之效果:
         (1) 不被承認之國家在承認國國內法上不必然取得法人格,須依各國實踐判定。惟一般而論,為保障承認國國民之私有財產利益,多數國家仍會給予此類實體"應訴資格",以解決其與承認國國民或法人所生之私法糾紛。
        (2) 依各國實踐,未被承認之國家所為的法律行為並非完全無效。依美國法院實踐,僅"政治性行為"(如沒收或徵收財產)不應視為有效,其他非政治性行為(如政府頒發之出生、死亡或結婚證明),仍應視為有效,否則將發生不合理之結果。

(本篇由助教發布)

2010年3月9日 星期二

Brazil puts trade sanctions on US

The Brazilian government has announced trade sanctions against a variety of American goods in retaliation for illegal US subsidies to cotton farmers.


The World Trade Organization (WTO) approved the sanctions in a rare move.


Brazil published a list of 100 US goods that would be subject to import tariffs in 30 days, unless the two governments reached a last-minute accord.


It said it regretted the sanctions, but that eight years of litigation had failed to produce a result.


It said it would raise tariffs on $591m (£393m) worth of US products - from cars, where the tariff will increase from 35% to 50%, to milk powder, which would see a 20% increase in the levy.

“ US farm subsidies are condemned worldwide. This archaic practice must stop ”

Carlos Marcio Cozendey Brazil's foreign ministry

Cotton and cotton products would be charged 100% import tariff, the highest on the list.
The Office of the US Trade Representative said it was "disappointed" by Brazil's decision and called for a negotiated settlement.


Critics say the US has given its cotton growers an unfair advantage by paying them billions of dollars each year.

In 2008, the WTO ruled that subsidies to US cotton producers were discriminatory.


Tall order HAVE YOUR SAY Government subsidies for local producers should only be allowed in response to short term need after natural disasters or periods of serious economic hardship Peter Galbavy


Carlos Marcio Cozendey, head of economic affairs at Brazil's foreign ministry, told a news conference: "The idea was to distribute the retaliation broadly in order to maximise pressure.


"US farm subsidies are condemned worldwide. This archaic practice must stop."

However some analysts say major changes to these subsidies would involve modifying agricultural legislation - a tall order for the US Congress against a difficult economic and political backdrop, says the BBC's Gary Duffy in Sao Paulo.


Our correspondent says the dispute, which began in 2002, is one of the few in which the WTO has allowed cross-retaliation, meaning the wronged party can retaliate against a sector not involved in the case.


He adds that it appears the Brazilian government has deliberately chosen a wide range of products in order to have maximum impact.


Safety net


Cotton producers in the US argue that the system of subsidies has changed since the WTO made its original ruling in 2005.


"The US has made changes in the cotton programme as well as the export guarantee programme," Gary Adams, chief economist at the National Cotton Council told the BBC, adding that US cotton production was now 40% to 45% lower.

Mr Adams said he believed that subsidies were still justified.


"We feel this is a very important financial safety net for producers," he said.


Steven Bipes of the Brazil-US Business Council urged the US to take steps to avoid what he called "damaging" retaliation by Brazil.


"The business community finds it extraordinarily important that countries, including the US, comply with its WTO obligations and otherwise negotiate to find common ground when there are disputes," he told the BBC.

Story from BBC NEWS:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/americas/8556920.stm
Published: 2010/03/09 08:31:50 GMT
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